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Chicago and Cincinnati were the primary two American cities to enact legal guidelines making certain cleaner air in 1881. As historian Martin Melosi notes, the era that first saw vehicles replacing the horses noticed vehicles as "miracles of cleanliness". By the Forties, nevertheless, automobile-caused smog was a significant issue in Los Angeles. , the use of  theskfeed coal for gas caused considerable air air pollution, and the conversion of coal to coke for iron smelting beginning in the 17th century exacerbated the issue. In Europe, from the Middle Ages nicely into the early modern period, unsanitary city situations favoured the outbreak of population-decimating epidemics of disease, from plague to cholera and typhoid fever. Through the 19th century, water and air pollution and the accumulation of solid wastes had been largely issues of congested city areas. Liquid waste released from a pipe right into a river is one other example (Figure 7.4). A non-point source (also